Have you ever wondered about the myriad materials from which stuff is made that we come across in our daily life? The numerous materials which have unique characteristics and which are used for making various articles used in everyday life- these materials attract the attention of the young inquisitive minds in engineering classrooms all over the world.

Today, let me introduce you to the world of “CERAMICS”.

“Ceramics” are the materials which are often misunderstood as materials used merely for pottery and decorative objects. Even though the word ceramic is derived from the Greek word “Keramos”, meaning potter’s clay or pottery, what many people don’t realize is that ceramics play an important role almost everywhere you see and many times in places that you can’t.

Besides the everyday objects of glassware and floor tiles, the ceramics of today are critical in helping computers and other electronic devices operate, in medical devices for improving people’s health in various ways, in providing global telecommunications, and in protecting soldiers and vehicles during combat.

Ceramics are generally defined as inorganic, non-metallic materials that are made from powdered chemicals. They are typically crystalline in nature (their atoms are arranged in a systematic manner) and are compounds formed between metallic and non-metallic elements such as aluminum and oxygen (alumina, Al2O3), calcium and oxygen (calcia, CaO), silicon and nitrogen (silicon nitride, Si3N4), and so on.

Various “advanced ceramic” products are manufactured by combining high-purity chemicals into desired shapes and then heating them to very high temperatures. The shaped ceramic products thus made can have many desirable properties such as heat resistance, hardness, strength, low electrical conductivity, and unique electro-mechanical characteristics. Thus advanced ceramics are ceramics which are made by tightly controlled methods and therefore they exemplify an “advancement” over the general definition. As a consequence of these refined methods, a new class of ceramics called “advanced ceramics” is born.

Long lasting and harder than steel, advanced ceramics may be found in aircraft engines, automotive engines, cutting tools used for making metal products, the skin of space shuttles, knives, bullet proof armor, artificial hip-joints, computers and microelectronics.

History

One of the first uses of advanced ceramics was for corrosion-resistant stoneware vessels in the chemical industry as early as the 1750s.Then came porcelain, which was first used in dentistry in the 1850s. With the invention of electric light in the 19th century, ceramic materials based on porcelain for electrical insulation were developed.

This was followed by the blooming of the radio and television broadcasting industry in the 20th century, which needed special heat resistant materials that could withstand the high-frequency electromagnetic fields. As a result, electro-ceramics such as steatite were developed. Subsequently, other electro-ceramics such as magnetic ceramics (ferrites) were developed, followed by capacitor ceramics (titanates) and electro-mechanical ceramics (piezoelectric ceramics). In the later part of the 20th century, the need for protecting tiny transistors and ICs from ambient conditions led to the development of ceramic packaging materials which facilitated further miniaturization.

Concurrent with the development of electro-ceramics, another sub-class of advanced ceramics which came to be called structural ceramics progressed, which had high structural and chemical integrity characterized by properties such as extremely high hardness, stiffness, and heat and chemical resistance. These structural ceramics found applications in various industries, for example in the space industry as heat and wear resistant tiles and nose cones on space shuttles, in the aerospace industry as bearings and turbine rotors, in the chemical industry as chemical resistant seals and conduits, in the defence industry as bullet-proof vests and armor plates for vehicles, in the biomedical industry as hip-joints, knee-joints and orbital implants, and so on.

Further Developments

As ceramic technology has rapidly progressed over time, the definition of advanced ceramics has expanded to include a much wider range of compositions used in a large variety of applications. In broader terms advanced ceramics also include glass (which has a non-crystalline or amorphous random atomic structure), enamel (a type of glassy coating), glass-ceramics (a glass which is partly crystallized), and inorganic cement-type materials (cement, concrete, plaster and lime).

Advanced ceramics include yet another sub-class of ceramics called refractories. Refractories are critical materials which reduce heat losses from industrial ovens, also called kilns, and at the same time they resist very aggressive conditions including chemical and acid attack, very high temperatures (up to 3200°F), abrasion, mechanical impact, and more. These refractory ceramics enable manufacturers of commodities such as metals, alloys, cement, glass, etc to operate efficiently and profitably. Thus they play a very important role in growing the global economy.

Advanced ceramics continue to be developed even further; new ceramics and their combinations are constantly being improved and newer products are continually being introduced in various industries.

The progress in advanced ceramics is so rapid that the advanced ceramics of today are strikingly different from those made even a few years ago. Ceramic engineers eagerly anticipate further rapid developments of newer ceramic materials and their combinations that will find even more exciting applications in the future.

Want to know more about advanced technical ceramics, how they are made and their various uses? Interested in following the latest developments of these materials? Interested in getting information and technical advice in this field? Just visit http://www.ceramics411.com

Contact Details:

University of Warwick

Coventry

CV4 7AL

Tel: +44 (0)24 7652 3523

Online:

http://www.warwick.ac.uk

http://www.sunion.warwick.ac.uk/

Interesting facts:

61% of students are undergraduates.

The sky diving team are recent British champions.

Jenny Bond, Timmy Mallet, Frank Skinner, Steven Pile (Writer), Sting, Simon Mayo and James King (BBC Radio 1 Film Critic) all attended Warwick university.

Guide:

There is one main university library with over one million books and a large collection of journals, magazines and electronic research facilities. There are also two smaller research libraries in the Biology and Maths departments. Overall the library facilities are good, but there are times when the one thousand six hundred study places and limited building size make it feel a bit cramped. There are around 900 workstations at various locations around campus including the main computer centre and the library. This is nowhere near enough and students would be well advised to bring their own machine. If you don’t have one the union sells second hand equipment. Also, students living in university accommodation can connect to the college’s broadband network. Warwick has a great range of sports facilities, which are free to students and staff. The Sports Centre has a gym, weight training facilities, squash courts, a climbing wall, a pool and a sauna. There are also sports fields for virtually every sport, including American football, and at Westwood there is an athletics track, another smaller pool and a dance studio. The Students’ Union has a range of sports clubs that cater for all levels of ability. Disabled students are very well catered for with services including ramps, lifts, induction loops, carer accommodation and Braille signs. Welfare is well organised and gives good general advice as well as specific information on physical and mental health. There are plenty of counsellors and a sabbatical welfare officer. There is a health centre and pharmacy on site and for staff or students who live on campus and have children there is a small nursery. 24 hour security means that crime on campus is extremely low and a night shuttle bus transports students around the campus to key drop off points and halls of residence. There is everything you could ever need shop wise on campus. An Endsleigh insurance shop, vending machines, a launderette, a hairdresser, the list goes on. There are also a small grocer and a bigger supermarket. Other food retailers can be found quite nearby. There are also branches of HSBC, Nat West and Barclays on campus.

Wheres my nearest…

…PUB?

New Varsity is the nearest pub at 0.58 miles from the university.

…CLUB?

Careys 2.52 miles from the main campus is the nearest club.

…CINEMA?

The nearest cinema is an Apollo Cinema in Leamington Spa 6.36 miles away.

…OFF LICENCE?

The nearest off licence is Cannon Hill News 0.86 miles away.

…TAKEAWAY?

Rainbow Chinese Takeaway is 1.02 miles from the main campus.

…GYM & LEISURE CENTRE?

Fitness First is 0.49 miles away.

…SWIMMING POOL?

The nearest pool is Abbey Fields 2.29 miles away.

…SUPERMARKET?

There is a TESCO 0.61 miles from the university.

…SHOPPING CENTRE?

Cannon Park Shopping Centre is just 0.61 mile away from the main campus.

…DOCTORS?

The nearest doctor is the University Of Warwick Health Centre on campus.

…CHEMIST?

There is a Boots just 0.61 miles away in the Cannon Park Shopping Centre

…OPTICIANS?

The nearest opticians is a G J Harvey in the Cannon Park Shopping Centre

…DENTIST?

The nearest dentist is J K Dhaliwal 0.95 miles from the university.

This articles describes the changes that the tattooed can expect and how they can help to mitigate unwanted changes with detailed aftercare information and also preventative measures that can be taken during the lifetime of the tattoo.

Transition

It’s natural to keep looking at your new tattoo in the mirror at this point, so don’t feel too narcissistic. People in the shop will no doubt be looking also. Now that the tattoo is complete, your artist will dispose of all the single-use items and remove the tattoo machine for later disassembly so that the tubes and needles can be cleaned and sterilized. The work area will have the Saran wrap removed, if it was used, and then he wiped down, just as when the whole process started.

The healing process begins almost immediately but your best and first layer of protection, your skin, has been penetrated. Your tattoo artist will take immediate steps to address that situation. Your tattoo will be cleaned with alcohol one last time—the cool feeling is a relief to the hot sensation caused by the swelling. A final coat of Vaseline (or other topical ointment of choice) will be applied, and then a bandage. That’s right, your brand-new tattoo is going to be hidden for its first several hours. The bandages vary from shop to shop, even from tattoo to tattoo. Sometimes a sterile pad with medical tape is used. Other tattoos, however, like a very large back piece, are impossible to bandage in that way. Instead, Saran wrap alone, held down by medical tape, might be used. The purpose of the bandage is to prevent infection and promote healing. Any sterile bandage material that accomplishes those goals is good for the task. Other options include a nonstick Telfa pad, and even a diaper for an awkward position on the body.

Your tattooist will tell you what to do to care for your new tattoo. These do’s and don’ts are the all-important aftercare instructions. The burden of infection prevention now shifts to you. Despite all efforts made on your behalf by the tattoo your artist, assuming that you’re happy with your new tattoo and you can afford it. Tip or not, though, if you’re happy with your tattoo, you might want to say so before you leave.

Also at this point, tattoo artists sometimes like to snap a quick photo of the piece before you leave. Ideally, they’d like to get a nice photograph for their portfolio or Web site when the tattoo is completely healed. But that would mean that clients would have to come back for the express purpose of providing a photo op—which rarely happens. Instead, most tattoo photos are taken right after the tattoo is done. Occasionally, clients return for more tattoos, providing an opportunity to photograph the healed piece.

Aftercare Calendar

The next couple of weeks are a critical time for you and your new tattoo, which is why tattoo shops will go to the trouble of providing written aftercare instructions for their clients. If you’ve looked into aftercare at all, though, you quickly realize that these instructions vary from shop to shop, and they have also changed over time. There are a few reasons for that variation. Different products for aftercare are available in different places, even on the same continent.

Tattoo artists may he apprenticed using certain products and may keep using them even when they move off and set up their own shop. Experience and a history with these aftercare products is important in the same way that experience is important for the choice of tattoo inks. Confidence in a product or technique builds over years of working with hundreds if not thousands of clients.

But with all the variation of time, place, and tattooist, there still remain some broad and common themes that run through aftercare instructions. The common denominator is twofold: preventing infection and promoting healing. Add to that a third goal of trying to retain as much ink as possible in the tattoo and you begin to understand the reasoning behind all aftercare instructions. The following is a generic aftercare calendar of what you can expect during the first few weeks with your new tattoo and what you need to do to take care of it.

DAY 1: This is the big day—the day you’re tattooed. Although most tattoo artists will instruct you to leave your bandage on for a minimum of two hours and hopefully somewhere between two and twelve hours, what they’re really shooting for is that you’ll leave it on overnight. You want the tattoo to remain moist and protected for as long as possible. Don’t go overboard with this, though. Leaving the bandage on overnight prevents the new tattoo from sticking to your pajamas or sheets on that first night, but the next morning should be considered the upper limit on how long the bandage should stay in place. Ideally then, on Day 1, you will not see, let alone touch, your new tattoo.

DAY 2: Wash your hands! Always, before touching your tattoo, including removing the bandage, wash your hands with an antibacterial soap. Let this become your new ritual, much like the tattoo artists before they put on their gloves. Remove the bandage, slowly, in case it has stuck to the tattoo. If that’s happened, then moisten the bandage with warm water (in the shower might be the easiest way) until it comes free without pulling. Gently, oh so gently, wash your new tattoo with a mild soap and warm water. Your goal is to remove any blood, lymph fluid, ink, or Vaseline that was left on the surface of the skin. You don’t want to scrub or even use a washcloth. Instead, use your clean hands and gently work off anything that is on the surface. Don’t soak your tattoo for the sake of soaking it, though. Once it’s clean, stop washing it. Pat it dry with a clean towel, taking care never to rub it. This is probably your first long look at it, all clean and new in its pristine glory. You will not be applying a new bandage.

Exception #1 in the aftercare game: The vast majority of people will not need a second bandage, but occasionally the double bandage is the best course for some people. Folks who are prone to scabbing or thick scabs or who have an impaired ability for the skin to heal itself or whose ink just doesn’t seem to stay (which you would only know from past tattoo experi- ence) might try a second bandage—but probably for not more than another twelve hours. After washing as above, apply another clean coat of Vaseline (or whatever product was used) and rebandage (with the same type of dressing as was used initially, or perhaps just Saran wrap and medical tape).

As the skin of the new tattoo heals, you want to keep it moist. How to prevent scabbing, which removes color from the tattoo and which would also create itching and the temptation to touch the tattoo, even scratch it. In order to prevent drying, you’ll use a cream to moisturize the tattoo. How often and how much? You want to use enough so that the tattoo doesn’t feel tight, dry, or itchy, and you want to achieve a thin coating, since you don’t want to clog the pores.

What type of cream or lotion should you use? There are many from which to choose, and every tattooee and artist will recommend something different. What it amounts to, though, is label reading. You want to avoid alcohol since it will dry the skin. At this point, you also want to avoid oil, grease, petrolatum (which is in Vaseline), and lanolin (animal oil extracted from wool) since these will clog pores. You want to avoid fragrance since it doesn’t do anything for you and could prove to be an irritant to freshly tattooed skin. What are your choices? They fall into two main categories: products made just for tattoo aftercare and products you can buy at any drugstore, grocery store, or pharmacy.

Specialized tattoo products (Tattoo Goo, Black Cat Super Healing Salve, THC Tattoo Aftercare, etc.) may be no better or worse than regular moisturizers at the supermarket. Again, it amounts to label reading. Some of these specialized products, typically sold in tattoo parlors, contain beeswax or dyes and fragrance. Some contain mixtures of homeopathic herbs, vitamins, and oils. Regular moisturizers and lotions (Curd, Lubriderm, A and D Ointment) are much the same, without the cool packaging and the word “tattoo” in the name. Again, these may contain petrolatum or lanolin and dyes and fragrances. You ideally want something as moist and neutral in terms of its chemical composition as possible.

An antibiotic cream perhaps? Well, here’s the deal with that. Many, many, many people use antibiotic creams in the aftercare of their new tattoo (like Neosporin, Polysporin, Bacitracin, Bepanthen, etc.). An antibiotic, however, is for killing bacteria and these may not, hopefully will not, be present. Antibiotic creams do not necessarily promote healing. in addition, in a very small percentage of people who are allergic to certain antibiotics, a relatively high dose through all those punctures in the skin can lead to the ultimate in allergic reactions, anaphylactic shock—a full-body allergic reaction that is characterized by breathing difficulty and plummeting blood pressure. So, while an antibiotic isn’t really necessary unless an infection develops, it will do no harm unless you just happen to be allergic to it.

Avoid wearing tight, restrictive clothes—including shoes if your new tattoo is on your foot—right over the top of the new tattoo. Wear clothing that breathes, allowing fresh air to reach the tattoo, cotton being ideal. No nylon stockings, for example, or polyester shirts. They don’t breathe, and they can also stick to a new tattoo.

You might also want to avoid hard workouts that flex the new tattoo or cause excessive sweating. Remember that your skin is healing, and these first few weeks are critical to the final look and longevity of your tattoo. A small amount of prevention now is worth untold rewards later.

So, on Day 2, remember to wear appropriate clothing and take your moisturizer with you, along with some antibacterial hand wipes or liquid to wash your hands before you moisturize your tattoo.

DAY 3: Take your shower as normal and do your best not to soak your tattoo, although you can gently wash it as on Day 2. Wash your hands and apply your moisturizer as often as necessary to keep the tattoo from getting dry.

DAYS 4 To 14: Unless you notice signs of an infection or allergic reaction, your tattoo will go through a couple of different phases in this two-week time period. Ideally, your tattoo will not actually scab in the sense that we normally think of it. Instead, the colored and damaged epidermis may simply peel, just like a sunburn, becoming flaky and falling off. Like a sunburn, you don’t want to help it. Never scratch or pick at the skin (or scab) of your new tattoo. Never, never, never. The thinner the scab, if there is one, the better, even paper thin. Thick scabs delay healing and can remove color from the new tattoo. Adhere strictly to the “NOs” in the first two weeks. If itching is driving you crazy, you might resort to an antihistamine, but check with your doctor first.

DAYS 15 TO 21: In general, tattoos will he completely healed somewhere between two and three weeks, although most will take only two weeks. Until your tattoo has completely peeled or the scab has completely fallen away, your tattoo is not complete. Even if the peeling has finished or the scab is gone, the new epidermal layer that forms over your tattoo is going to be quite sensitive. By week three, if your tattoo is completely healed, you should still avoid sun, although you can go back to all your other vices—swimming, sauna, etc.

Just as when you sat down for your tattoo and signed your contract, remember that tattoo artists are not medical doctors. The guidelines that they give you and the guidelines given above are just that: generic guidelines which work for the majority of the populace. Only a medical doctor can give you medical advice and he or she is the only person that you should be consulting for such advice. Don’t rely on what your friends say or have done. Don’t rely on word of mouth. Your primary sources of information are your tattoo artist, in the form of aftercare instructions and based on experience, and your doctor, based on training.

Public Enemy Number One

Once your tattoo has completely healed, feel free to frolic in the hot tub and splash in chlorinated beverages all you like. When it comes to the sun, though, from here on out it is your tattoo’s number one enemy–Destroyer of Pigment, Vanquisher of Color, Fader of All Things Once Bright. It’s ironic, of course. You want nothing more than for your friends to see your new tattoo. Hell, for strangers to see it too. But tattoo viewings are best left to the great indoors, no matter what the beach at spring break looks like.

You’re used to the sun having an effect on your skin. In response to the radiation of the sun, it gets darker. You get a tan. That happens to all skin types, from white to black and everything in between. The pigment is called melanin and it’s produced by melanocytes in the epidermis. In darker skin, melanin is in a constant state of production. However, melanin is not produced in response to all radiation; it is specifically counteracting ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The skin produces melanin in response to UV light as a protective mechanism so that the melanin can absorb the UV radiation and protect other cells from UV damage. That’s all well and good and right. But consider how a darker epidermis affects the look of your tattoo. In order to see your tattoo, remember, you are looking through the epidermis. The darker the window, the darker the tattoo will look.

Fade Out

Tattoos fade just like all other color that comes under the rays of the sun. The technical term is photodegradation. Like the snapshot that you left on your dashboard for months or the red heart in bumper stickers that say “I [heart symbol] Pain” or whatever it is you love, all pigments fade when exposed to the sun. Both CV and visible sunlight contribute to the process of fading colors, but it’s that nasty old UV that is also the culprit in a lot of skin problems. When it comes to color, radiation from the sun attacks the chemical bonds that absorb light. All pigments absorb light as part of their normal function. When you’re looking at a red heart, the reason you see red is because the blue and the yellow are being absorbed and only the red reflected. All pigments work this way, including those used for tattoos. They absorb some colors while reflecting others. When the chemical bonds are broken down at the molecular level by the nasty UV radiation (which they also absorb, to their detriment), they lose their ability to absorb and reflect different colors. Less red is reflected and possibly also more blue anti yellow, which used to he absorbed. What we see in the end product is a less intense red. Since tattoos are generally composed of darker colors (outlines of black as just a start), they are clearly absorbing more light than not (since they are reflecting less—this is why black clothes in the summer sun make you feel much more hot than white). If you want to preserve color, then keep it in the dark, like the wall paintings in the tombs of the pharaohs.

Tattoos battle another fading mechanism as well, since they are impregnated in a living organism, also known as our skin. We already know that if the tattoo pigment has not penetrated to the dermis and has instead ended up primarily in the epidermis, then the tattoo will seem to fade as the epidermis routinely sloughs off and rejuvenates itself. The process of forming new epidermal cells that push their way up from the bottom to the top of the epidermis where they are shed, carrying tattoo pigment right along with them, is some thirty-five to forty-five days. In the truest sense, this is not a faded tattoo per se. It’s an inferior one, since it never reached the dermis. Even for pigment that reaches the dermis, however, there are still some obstacles to overcome.Until your tattoo pigment has taken up permanent residence within the dermis in a fibroblast (a stringy type of cell that makes up connective tissue), your body will treat it like the foreign body that it is, attempting to capture it for escort out. The immune system tries to engulf the pigment molecule with a type of white blood cell, the largest of which is a macrophage. Sometimes the pigment molecule is ust too big, however (size does count), so the immune system may try to break it down into smaller parts by dissolving i Tattoo pigment doesn’t generally just dissolve but nevertheless, over time, your immune system will capture what it can and then transport it away in the lymph system.

If you’ve been tattooed, the lymph nodes closest to your tattoo likely carry tattoo pigment. After all is said and done, however, the immune system carries away only a small percentage and the remainder is captured in fibroblasts.

Which colors fade the fastest? It depends on the particular molecular composition of the pigment used. Some of the chemical bonds are less stable than others. We’ve already seen that the ingredients in tattoo pigment are largely unknown and, if known, their composition is sometimes held like a secret. The overwhelming anecdotal evidence for tattoos, however, is that red seems to fade the fastest. In tattoos that are twenty to fifty years old, sometimes the red is completely gone.

Best Defense

The best defense in the skin game is not necessarily a good offense. The best defense in the battle of fading tattoos is to combat tattoo enemy number one, the sun, by running away. The easiest and the most effective thing to do is cover the tattoo with clothing. A tattoo that is done well in the first place, healed properly, and protected from light can remain vibrant for many decades. Ironically, of course, this isn’t why many people get a tattoo. They get it to show it. So if you gotta show it, then show it indoors. If you gotta show it outdoors, do it in the winter on a cloudy day. If you gotta show it outdoors in the summer, do it in the early morning or late afternoon. And if you show it outdoors at all, use sunblock, always, always, always, even in winter on a cloudy day.

Sunblock and sunscreen are not created equal. A sunscreen chemically absorbs the UV radiation, not unlike the melanin naturally present in your skin, attempting to prevent as many of the rays from reaching your skin as possible. Sunscreens are generally transparent after they’ve been rubbed in. A sunhlock actually physically blocks the sun from hitting your skin. You’re probably familiar with the white nose treatment that lifeguards and sailing competitors wear. Those are examples of sunblocks, probably white zinc oxide. However, sunblocks don’t necessarily need to look like geisha makeup. ‘Today they are available in a microbead form that is also transparent. The American Cancer Society recommends a sunscreen or sunblock rated at least SPF 15 in order to protect your skin from the damaging rays of the sun. Applying it correctly is also a must as long as you’re going to use it: apply twenty minutes before being in the sun, twenty minutes after (think of it as the second coat of paint that gets the thin spots), and every two hours after that. As you may recall, your tattoo resides in your dennis while the cells that create a suntan and natural skin color reside in your epidermis. That means that your tattoo will not protect you from a sunburn in that spot. What’s good for your skin is good for your tattoo. Neither is maintenance free when treated right.

Stretch and Shrink

Tattoos will stretch and shrink, but only within limits. Moderate and gradual weight gain or loss will have little effect on a tattoo except to stretch and shrink it accordingly. Think of birthday balloons that are slightly overinflated and underinflated. You can still read “Happy Birthday” pretty easily and the letters maintain their relative spacing and composition. However, other types of rapid weight gain or loss could be another matter. For example, women who are considering having children might want to think twice about an abdominal tattoo placement. Similarly, men who are planning on getting seriously into bodybuilding might want to reconsider their upper armband. Stretch marks (often associated with pregnancy but which can also afflict all women as well as men) can also appear on the arms, thighs, and buttocks and even the hips and lower back.

Blur(b)

Tattoos will blur for some of the same reasons that they fade. As the chemical bonds are broken and the molecules begin to break down as a result of exposure to the sun, the body’s immune system, always on the prowl, will attempt to take the smaller molecules away. In addition, tattoos on areas of the body that stretch constantly (the elbows, knees, ankles, feet, and even hands) will also blur more easily over time, for all the masons that we’ve discussed above. Tattoos done in skin that has already been damaged by overexposure to the sun also seem to he more susceptible to blurring, with the skin less able to hold the ink securely in position.

Ch-Ch-Ch-Changes

Tattoos change over time but there are simple and commonsense steps that can mitigate unwanted changes, perhaps even preventing them completely. Tattoo artists are loath to give a number on how many years a tattoo will last (which is essentially forever) or how long it will look good (which is so variable that there’s no good answer). The way a tattoo holds up over time is so dependent on its initial quality, the healing period, its maintenance, and the variations of people’s skins that it is impossible to predict. Even a well-executed, simple, lettered word, for example, placed on the knuckles and never covered in the sun, might begin to blur and fade in its first summer, especially given the stretching of the skin over the joints. The same exact lettering, however, on the back of the shoulder, which healed properly, never saw the light of day, and never suffered excessive stretching or shrinking, might remain nearly as crisp and legible in its second decade as it did in its second week.

Finally, though, let us acknowledge that as the skin naturally ages, the look of our tattoos changes as well. Age spots and wrinkles take their toll on the clarity and pristine color of our tattoos. Given enough time, even the boldest and darkest outline softens, inevitably blurring to a minute extent. The lines appear to grow ever so slightly thicker and the gaps between them seem to narrow, sometimes even disappearing. Shading that was once bright and solid becomes a touch less immediate and vibrant. Pigment is moving imperceptibly over time on a cellular level as the elasticity and resilience of our skin naturally declines. For these changes that come simply as a result of time, there is no escape—for our skins, our tattoos, or ourselves. Instead, only our attitudes toward that process count and dictate whether we see an aging tattoo as attractive or not.

If your finances will not allow you to purchase an entirely new, larger vehicle or a brand new cargo trailer, there is always the option to purchase used cargo trailers. Used cargo trailers may be previously owned, but as long as you find one of good quality, much like a used car, you will save a significant amount of time and money. Remember, just like a vehicle, the moment the cargo trailer rolls off the dealership’s property, it depreciates in value. Purchasing a used cargo trailer allows you to save a little bit on this inevitable loss.

The first step in purchasing a used cargo trailer is to take a look at your current vehicle’s size and towing capacity. If you drive a truck or a van, it should be equipped to handle most cargo trailers. A full-size car may only be able to pull a smaller cargo trailer. Almost no compact cars are able to pull any size cargo trailer. If a compact car is the only vehicle available, a small cargo trailer intended for use with a motorcycle may work quite well, which is often overlooked. Used motorcycle cargo trailers are an excellent deal, both financially and practically.

After considering the size of your car or truck and its capacity for towing a trailer, think about the type of cargo you will be storing. If you plan to store or transport large items for your delivery business, you may likely need a larger trailer. If you wish to transport equipment for a family vacation, you might do well with a smaller cargo trailer.

Before buying a used cargo trailer, it is important to consult a professional. Expert advice is essential in making sure that you have decided on the proper size and style cargo trailer. Another smart step to take before making the final purchase is to do a little research. If you plan to obtain a used cargo trailer from a dealership, research that dealership to ensure that it is reputable. If you are considering making a purchase from a private seller, be sure to inspect the cargo trailer thoroughly.

Purchasing a used cargo trailer can end up saving you or your business a significant amount of money. Used cargo trailers often cost 25-50% (or more) less than what the same make and model would cost brand new. Cargo trailers are an ideal solution for individuals that do not have the funds to purchase a new, larger car or truck, but still need to transport equipment or shipments.

INTRODUCTION

How many firms think their inventory investment is low enough? What is low enough? INVENTORY is the largest single asset on the balance sheet of many manufacturers and distributors. It is usually the most expensive asset to own and maintain as well, with estimates of carrying costs typically running 25-30 cents or more on the dollar annually. Therefore, any useful suggestions to optimize INVENTORY investment and associated expenses would be most valuable.

The paper addresses how to manage INVENTORY investment to optimum levels, which means a reduction or major redistribution of it in most companies. Optimal INVENTORY levels come down as management makes the operation more efficient by improving processes, reducing lead-time, managing supply and demand better.

One can’t “attack” INVENTORY effectively, but only its underlying causes, which will be discussed. Most INVENTORY “problems” are merely a reflection of management, design, process or operational problems. Current literature on Just-in-Time and World-Class Manufacturing addresses how inventory reduction is a by-product of doing things right the first time.

WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF INVENTORY?

Why is INVENTORY “bad”?

INVENTORY is a major capital investment affecting cash flow and profitability. Inventory comprising one-third to one-half of companies’ total assets isn’t unusual. There are significant expenses associated with possessing it. INVENTORY reductions can do more to improve ROA (Return On Assets) in most companies than most other factors. For instance, a 50% reduction in INVENTORY will typically account for a 10-25% improvement in ROA! Certain industries, such as aerospace and defense, widely believe that INVENTORY is a non-issue, because they receive “progress payments” from customers or because they “write-off” job-end variances and leftover “residual” inventories. The facts are that these companies need to watch inventories even more closely but first they need to be made aware that there are INVENTORIES to watch. Just because the government or other customers finance the cost of money for INVENTORY, doesn’t mean that there aren’t many other hidden costs, most of which are hiding in burden and serve to make the company less competitive and profitable.

Excess inventories subject the manufacturer to additional liabilities for things such as obsolescence, rework, storage charges, etc. Most of these ultimately end up “written off” and are applied to “overhead”, but this eventually raises the overhead rate, which increases costs of doing business, which raises prices, which makes companies less competitive. It really doesn’t matter that much (except for tax purposes) whether costs end up as direct, indirect, expensed, burden, or whatever: they all affect profitability, investment and cost of manufacturing.

Carrying Costs

Let’s look at what goes into INVENTORY “cost of ownership”, frequently called the “carrying cost” and expressed in terms of percent cost of INVENTORY valuation per year of ownership. For example, a 25% carrying cost would indicate that it costs about $.25 to own each $1.00 of INVENTORY each year. These costs consist of:

• Cost of money – The cost of capital to the company or, in some cases the “opportunity cost” or return that could be earned on the money by applying it productively elsewhere. The cost of money has ranged anywhere from 6% to 18% in the last 25 years. Obviously, cost of money has a very significant impact on investment strategy.

• Obsolescence – The risk of INVENTORY never being used, or needing rework to make it usable, needs to be factored into the cost of owning INVENTORY. In theory (and practice), the larger the INVENTORY is, and the longer it is held, the more likely engineering changes, customer preferences and technological changes will render that INVENTORY unusable. In the clothing industry, it is not uncommon to see inventories depreciate as much as 90% when styles change. Certain portions of the electronics industry have problems with INVENTORY becoming obsolete very quickly due to technological changes.

• Shrinkage – A portion of INVENTORY becomes unavailable to the owner due to loss, damage, theft or spoilage. The longer INVENTORY is there and the more there is, the more likely this is to happen. Steps to prevent it only raise carrying costs in other areas, such as security, air conditioning, better control systems, recruiting policies, etc.

• Quality Factors – Allowances for yield, attrition, scrap and rework. This is really more of a function of the process than the amount of INVENTORY invested and is more related to throughput, but is usually expressed as part of the aggregate INVENTORY carrying cost.

• Technological or Price Obsolescence – Prices don’t always go up. In fact, in industries such as electronics, prices often plummet due to constantly improving designs, product and process technology improvements. Therefore, it is desirable to minimize inventories in high-risk areas.

• Taxes – There are two dimensions to this: 1) In some areas, a tax is levied on inventories, so the more INVENTORY, the more tax is paid. 2) INVENTORY is regarded as an asset by most accounting and tax rules. Therefore, building large inventories shows “profits” and profits are usually taxed, usually by multiple government entities.

• Insurance – The cost of carrying insurance on INVENTORY needs to be considered, as well as insuring the space, equipment, people and other resources needed to control it.

• Space – Costly storage space sometimes occupies 25-30% of the total facility, when one considers raw material warehouses, stockrooms, work-in-process storage, receiving, shipping, outside warehouses, MRB and residual storage areas. INVENTORY reduction campaigns frequently help companies avoid the need to move to large facilities, or permit them to shut down or cut back existing facilities.

• Manpower – All of this INVENTORY needs people to order, receive inspect, record, move, count, store, retrieve, post it to the ledger, etc. People are the largest or second largest expense (behind material) for most manufacturers.

• Record Keeping Systems – Software, procedures, equipment and paper must be used to stay on top of INVENTORY.

• Material Handling/Storage Equipment – Conveyors, fork lifts, bar code readers, scales, AS/RS, trucks, carts, bins, racks, shelves must all be purchased, leased, maintained and cared for.

• Physical Inventories, Reconciliations – Must be conducted to ensure that inventories are properly accounted for and maintained.

• Transportation – Must be provided to move INVENTORY in and out of the facility, to vendors, within the facility to different workstations and storage areas.

• Energy – Heat, light, humidity control, air conditioning, refrigeration and fuel must be consumed to make all this happen.

WHAT AFFECTS INVENTORY?

One must “know thine enemy” to successfully deal with it. Now that we’ve discussed the significance of INVENTORY, let’s determine why it exists and what makes it go up or down.

INVENTORY is not always evil. It usually exists for a reason, however a reason is not always true justification. INVENTORY is frequently kept as a buffer and masks other problems.

Major Reasons for Inventory

• Net Demand – Demand derived directly from customer requirements or internal demand.

• Pipeline – INVENTORY needed to sustain the process over its cumulative lead-time through all operations and holding points. Also included in the pipeline are paperwork operations, such as billing, which could increase inventory if not done timely enough.

• Quality – Yield, attrition, scrap, rework allowances impacting amount of inventory and time inventory is in process.

• Lot Size – Lot size considerations include vendor minimum order quantities, raw material and manufacturing lot sizes due to setup and other nonrecurring, lot-related cost considerations and run time impact considerations.

• Supply Buffer – Extra INVENTORY carried as a hedge against unreliability of vendor or factory schedules, inaccurate records, unpredictable quality or other fluctuations tending to reduce reliability of providing materials on demand. It is usually expressed in terms of “safety stock” (quantity or periods of supply) or “safety lead time” (bringing it in earlier).

• Demand Buffer – Extra INVENTORY planned due to uncertainty of the true requirement need date or quantity, which may vary due to poor forecasts, transportation problems, or various contingencies. It usually takes the form of larger quantities being put into process, or processes started earlier as a hedge against demand fluctuations. It is usually combined into the total buffer as described above. Another form of demand buffer is building “anticipation” inventory for seasonal fluctuations and other forecasted demand surges.

• Hedge – Inventory acquired for speculative purposes with the exception that prices will rise later, justifying the earlier investment risk.

Other Factors Affecting INVENTORY

The reasons given above are those that apply for a given set of circumstances or basic assumptions about design, processes, etc. The factors below are more basic and can have a more profound long-term effect on INVENTORY:

• Product Design – The number and type of parts, difficulty to manufacture and specifications for materials, reliability designed in and other factors, do more to set basic parameters for INVENTORY than anything else. A product design that minimizes the number of parts, picks easily obtainable materials and components, lends itself to manufacturing with the simplest possible facilities and equipment will minimize INVENTORY costs over the long pull.

• Materials Supply – Specifying quality materials, well suited to the process and application, with easy availability, low prices, reliability of supply and short response time are all big advantages that can facilitate INVENTORY reduction. Having the best sources for key materials or changing existing arrangements can do a lot to help minimize inventories.

• Processes – Good, reliable processes will help reduce INVENTORY, because they will help reduce scrap, rework and attrition, and also provide a more reliable flow of supply, which will help reduce buffer stocks, safety stocks, safety lead time INVENTORY and eliminate much accumulation of INVENTORY on the production floor. Better processes will also serve to reduce many other burden activities, such as inspection, MRB, management intervention, expediting, etc. Better process design, coupled with improved equipment selection and tooling engineering cannot only minimize the amount of set-up and other nonrecurring or lot-related activities to be performed, but speed up the entire process. Reducing set-up not only cuts labor, but also improves facilities/equipment utilization and decreases the amount of time that INVENTORY needs to be invested. This can result in capital investment avoidance, which helps minimize the asset base and operating expenses, which further improves return on assets/investment.

• Facilities Layout/Design – INVENTORY may be increased significantly if this is not done properly. Widely scattered plants, multi-story buildings with inadequate material flow capabilities and processes distributed over many different departments, all increase the amount of part travel, possibility of loss, delays and need for manpower and extra equipment to support the process. Poor utilization of space will also increase the cost per square foot and the number of square feet required to support the process.

• Service Objectives – The required response time and reliability of service to customers has a big impact on INVENTORY costs. For instance, if industry standards allow making to customer specifications from scratch, there may be less need to maintain finished goods inventories. If customers or distributors carry stock, that reduces pressure upon the supplier to maintain inventories and reduce them quickly. Once a competitor attempts to improve service by keeping raw materials, work-in-process or finished goods available, or by making the process quicker and more efficient, it puts pressure on competitors to meet this new standard.

• Outside Processing – Some firms lament the amount of money spent on outside processing charges. This is not a problem unless they are significantly higher than comparable in-house costs. If only a little bit higher, it’s better to leave them outside if the vendors are nearby, reliable and provide good service. The reason for this is that these services are hard to manage, are frequently outside the scope of the business and are better left outside when fluctuations in customer demand occur, since this reduces the amount of money needed to support underutilized capacity.

• Planning/Control Systems – Systems employed to manage supply and demand and control the production process have a large effect on INVENTORY. The policies that management sets, the education/training it provides and the ongoing follow-up to ensure that these points are implemented and data integrity maintained, are decisive.

The systems we refer to are:

• Front End

-Forecasting

-Production Planning

-Master Production Scheduling

-Capacity Requirements Planning

• Engineering

-Bill-of-materials

-Change Control

-Routing/Process

• Material Planning

-Time Phasing Tools

-Requirements Calculations/netting

• Shop Floor Control

• Data Integrity

-Bill-of-material

-MPS

-INVENTORY, PO, RM, WIP, QA, FG

-Process

Cost

• Material Costs – Material cost increases (obviously) raise INVENTORY. Lowest unit cost does not necessarily mean lowest cost of doing business, or even lowest cost of material, for that matter. These can be deceptive, because as material costs go up, turns do not decrease, because they are being measured on a new and higher base. In a standard cost system, “variances” may be expensed and not immediately show up in some inventory systems, such as standard cost.

• Overhead – Burden rates of 300%, 500% or more are not uncommon. Having a high overhead rate is not “bad”, only total costs that are too high are “bad”. Your overhead rate is a reflection of cost distribution and accounting techniques as well. However, if overhead is going up without attendant drops in other areas and if other industry competitors are doing better, then it’s “bad.”

• Setup and Other Nonrecurring Costs – In most companies, these are either part of direct labor or buried in overhead. I broke them out separately here because of their differing characteristics. Many manufacturing people feel that the way to reduce the set-up portion of overall run time is to increase lot sizes. Unfortunately, the attendant increase in INVENTORY and other related expenses sometimes negates setup reductions. Another argument is that long runs increase capacity An interesting ideas, but large lot sizes also take up capacity and confuse priorities. The real answer is to reduce setup times.

• Labor Content – Reduction of direct labor has been one of the few bright spots in American productivity improvements over the years. It has gone down to a much lower percentage than before. It amuses me that some major manufacturers and government regulatory agencies focus so much attention on reducing direct labor content, which is a low as 3-5% in some industries. The area to look at is labor variances, due to down time, quality problems, material shortages, etc., and in indirect labor. In short, reduce the overhead due to other factors increasing labor.

The preceding sections should give you a better idea of the significance of INVENTORY, and what affects it. If you have been reading carefully, you have already seen opportunities for reduction, since knowing the question is frequently half of the answer. The next section will amplify and clarify some of these…

HOW TO REDUCE INVENTORY

Advice To The Boss

Let’s now discuss some specifics for helping to tame the beast. To begin with, let’s first set up a program to do this with little initial out-of-pocket costs, a fast payback and subsequent return on investment!

Your controller will love this.

It sounds almost ridiculously simple, but there is a sequence that one ought to address inventory reduction activities in:

• Don’t bring it in. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Don’t order what you don’t need. For existing commitments, cancel or reschedule where practical.

• If you already have it, ship it. Work on eliminating constraints to getting product shipped. Sell excess inventory at full price/cost, if possible.

• Try to rework or substitute. Attempt to rework, retest inventory, try to substitute it in place of parts that have been specified.

• Salvage it for cash at a reduced rate

• Dump it. If all else fails and it’s really not needed, throw it away, because the tax write-off and lower holding costs alone will make it worthwhile.

Try the specific recommendations contained in the sections following…

Short-Term Activities

Since it is an “established” fact that most managers think “only of short term profits,” let’s cover the stuff we can do right away first. The author doesn’t believe that most top managers really believe this but knows that in order to keep a business going and to keep your job, you do have to show short-term results.

Assign responsibility/accountability for inventory reduction

Not just to the materials people, but production, sales and engineering also. This should probably be a team, with ONE person clearly in charge, who should a vice president, rather than a summer intern.

Get Control of The Checkbook

This is one of the first things that “turnaround artists” always do to rescue a foundering company. Insist on getting justification for all new INVENTORY expenditures – especially “A” items (most expensive ones). Sign all major approvals and checks yourself. Brook neither opposition nor watering down of this until things are back in control, policies are established, being followed and look like they can stay that way. This has an amazing and rapid effect on INVENTORY and has been practiced first-hand by the author and customers. It requires nearly no cash to implement. Consider having the requisitioner show up in person to plead his/her case of why the inventory is needed and explain all the nasty problems.

Use this process to force those responsible to justify what they are doing and why and to think through these policies and their enforcement in a new light – that of investment management. While you are doing this, use it to study the dynamics of INVENTORY planning systems and to decide what INVENTORY investments should be and what problems really are. You should develop a matrix of inventory days coverage targets by commodity by product line by planner. Then cost it out and track actual performance. Be sure to track commitments and planned amounts, or you may be disappointed again fairly soon.

Conduct basic indoctrination of people affecting INVENTORY most dramatically—planners, buyers, production management, sales, customer service- establish some temporary “edicts” and enforce them until more formal policies/procedures can be established/changed later on. Make sure you know what you are doing before you establish these. Beware of mindless “across the board reduction” edicts that could result in hurting service and profits.

Have your people perform a quick “thumbnail” INVENTORY analysis

Start with items currently on order, in process, or being planned. As Al Agosti of IQR says, “first stop the bleeding. Then take away the knife.” It always amazes me that companies will spend a fortune to analyze INVENTORY, which is already there, but ignore huge impending expenditures, which they can do something about before disaster strikes. If your company can’t save a bundle the first month of this methodology, maybe it’s too late already. To do this, perform a quick “ABC” analysis, identifying only the expensive (“A”) items initially. In most companies, these are only 5-15% of the total items and can be leveraged to provide quick benefits in terms of investment management. After this has been done, get together with the management team, do a quick brainstorm and put together a Pareto chart, showing problems in descending order of importance.

Start with a calculation of what is actually needed:

• Go through all the arguments of why people need more, sooner and then get people to agree on how they can avoid doing that.

• Cut new INVENTORY scheduled to come in whenever possible.

• Determine right away what can be cancelled, rescheduled, returned to vendor for credit or sold for salvage. Balance the costs of doing this against the relative benefits.

• Work on getting product shipped and billed to get INVENTORY relief.

• Try to match INVENTORY input closer to ship date (reduce lead times and carrying time)

• Determine if excess/obsolete finished goods can be put on promotion or “fire sale.” Do so if appropriate.

• Lean on customers who have cancelled/rescheduled orders to your detriment. Try to get them to pay for part of these costs, accept the INVENTORY, or use these incidents as levers to improve future terms.

• Look for obvious bottlenecks in the planning and processing of orders such as:

-Amount of lead-time and queue permitted.

-Lot size and cycle times.

-Scheduling assumptions

-Major bottlenecks caused by improper manning, defective or poorly maintained equipment, etc.

-Build-ahead and buffer policies

Set goals for inventory down to the level of managers and planners

Do this “rough cut,” for “A” items first—more detailed analysis comes later. Set targets by planner, buyer, product line or any other meaningful political or production entity that will foster accountability, which you will want to later measure results against and enforce.

Go for the “easy wins” with the best payback first. Don’t fall into “paralysis by analysis.” You can do more in the first few months than you think. It won’t cost much and will provide large net benefits. So far, we have not asked Information Technology to put together any fancy reports or programs, we haven’t hired any new people, no new equipment has been purchased and we haven’t revolutionized the way the business is done. That comes later:

Establish formal problem solving methodology

Use task teams, quality circles, natural work groups, tiger teams or whatever they’re calling them this month and have these groups identify major problems, opportunities and then address the solutions. Our experience has been that almost any prior training in problem-solving approaches and reasonable coaching will greatly enhance results.

Perform “stock location audit”

In many cases, lost inventory holds up shipments and inflates inventory needlessly. Location audits are a quick way to find some of it. Simply go out to the shop and write down only the identity (part number) and location of all storeroom and/or work-in-process and other inventories, then compare to your records. Don’t even bother to count it (that’s what takes the longest). You will probably discover things you had lost or never even knew you had.

Take your “hits” for inventory early

As soon as you have some idea of the magnitude of excess/obsolete inventory, work on getting financial and general management to “write it off”, in order to get the tax benefits, where favorable. There is normally reluctance to write-off because of the adverse “paper” affect on the financial statements and fear of blame. However, it’s the best thing for the company in most cases, except for instances when stock prices, pending loans, etc, may be affected. Be careful, because failure to recognize true inventory worth might be considered misrepresentation in those cases, though. See your lawyer if in doubt.

That depletes my INVENTORY of quick fixes. Now it gets a little harder…

Mid-term Activities

In this phase, more careful planning, analysis, discipline and systems are needed. These programs should start early on and may not bring a lot of results for months or more.

Eliminate Bottlenecks

As an extension of the short-term problem solving activities, work on formally addressing major bottlenecks in areas such as material, capacity/equipment, paperwork/systems, engineering, personnel/training, etc. A good master scheduling approach should be included in these activities. Focus on cycle time reduction.

Inventory Analysis/Target Setting

Joe Barcy of Inventory Performance Systems calls it the “Divide and Conquer” approach. What he meant is that a company has to bring decisions and measurements down to the level of accountability and below (to the person/part/number/cost element level) and also aggregate this information up to meaningful levels for analysis by various levels of management.

First, group INVENTORY items at the part number level into categories by responsible planner and/or buyer and commodity. Do this in descending dollar sequence, preferably by projected usage (historical usage, if that’s all you can find, but it has its disadvantages). If you don’t have the ability to do this by computer, do it by hand for the A items first – look up production plans, sales forecasts and buy cards, then extend quantities by approximate costs. Use purchase history, quotes, accounting department support, or whatever you can get. Getting it done fast and approximately is much more important than carrying it out to four decimal places. Remember: money is being wasted while you delay!

If your current formal systems cannot deliver this type of information, consider using a “4th generation” report writer (they’re calling them “Decision Support Systems” and “Data Warehouses” now and correspondingly inflating the prices), or maybe a system designed specifically for INVENTORY analysis and reduction.

Analyze INVENTORY on the following suggested parameters:

1.ABCD classification (by annual usage value)

2.Turnover/investment performance

3.Highest dollars committed

4.Highest dollars in INVENTORY

5.Most longest period coverage planned/available

6.Items with coverage/commitments greater than policy

Once you have all this data, set targets, measure and control performance.

Data Accuracy Program

Set up a formal, ongoing program to clean up and maintain accurate records for inventory, bill-of-material, routings and planning data. See my article: Inventory Accuracy: How We Did it In 60- Days! (APICS Intl Conf. Proceedings 1989).

Policies/Procedures

Write/update policies and procedures to guide your operation. Conduct an ongoing education and training program to ensure that people know what to do and how to do it. Sometimes this is regarded as a “soft” project with indeterminate payback. Our experience and observations have shown us that a well founded and run program to do this is an excellent investment in a company’s future. Even simple handwritten ones may be a big improvement, especially if you have none, or worse yet, they are so bad that no one will use them.

How to Optimize inventory Levels

If you’re expecting a neat formula here to plug in your numbers, you’re sadly mistaken. It doesn’t exist and if someone tells you it does, it probably doesn’t work. Here are a few ideas that have worked for me:

• Estimate target days coverage using the team’s best judgment for each commodity/product line. Obviously there will be some exception items.

• The “one less” approach: Try reducing inventories in doubtful areas a little bit at a time. Pull back when you get in trouble or when you spot a constraint. Continue after you have relieved the constraint(s) some.

• The lead time/cost build up chart: Construct a graph per product showing the time phased cost buildup in cost of goods sold amount. Have the team meet to see where lead times, lot sizes, attrition factors and buffers can be reduced.

• Modeling tools, Advanced Planning Systems (APS), have some potential for optimizing certain situations, but they have been a bit oversold and are not easy to set up and maintain.

Long-Term Activities

Making really major changes takes much longer. While I will enumerate some recommended programs you should probably embark upon, a thorough discussion is beyond the scope of this paper and falls under such categories as World Class Manufacturing, Just-In-Time, Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Quality Function Deployment, Manufacturing Resource Planning, ERP, Total Quality Management and other high-sounding names. By the way “long-term” doesn’t mean you wait a long time to get these started, but that is takes a long time to get results…and time’s a wastin’!

Key Points

To summarize some important points for your future reference:

• Inventory reduction is one of the cheapest ways to improve profits

• Get control of the “checkbook”!

• Use Pareto’s 80-20% principle to leverage your time and investment – choose your battles – biggest bang for the buck.

• Once of prevention = pound of cure

• Set targets – “divide and conquer”!

• Force accountability- Set up a responsible team- hold it accountable. Include in performance appraisals, incentives

• Question assumptions – eliminate waste

• Doing business right will automatically reduce excess inventory in most cases, but still needs monitoring and control

Pet travel warning

• Never move a sick pet – the move may aggravate his symptoms and be dangerous to his health.

• The Animal Welfare Act makes it illegal to transport puppies and kittens less than eight weeks old by air.

• Pets cannot be moved on a moving van with your household belongings.

• Pets are generally not allowed on trains or buses, unless they’re guide-dogs accompanying blind or otherwise impaired persons.

• Book a direct flight if you are traveling by plane. If your pet is traveling in freight he may be sitting outside with the freight for a long period of time between flights and as the freight is being moved from plane to plane. If the weather is either too hot or too cold your pet will suffer. An insulated crate will certainly help this situation if it cannot be avoided.

Air Transport

You may transport your pet by air either accompanying you or as air freight. Some airlines provide counter-to-counter service so your pet will be carried on and off the plane by an airline employee. Remember, not all airlines accept pets for transportation, so be sure to inquire when you are making your travel arrangements. Also be sure to check about charges and insurance charges for transporting your pet.

It is important that you book your air travel as early as possible. Airlines that accept pets for transportation will have specific regulations and guidelines regardless of whether the pets are accompanied or unaccompanied. For example, you may be required to be at the airport several hours in advance of the flight to check your pet in and your pet may need a special crate. The airline may be able to provide to you a crate for the trip, or you may have to purchase one from the airline.

The airline will have guidelines on the crate types allowed and your local pet supply company will be able to sell you the required crate. You pet should be able to stand and turn around with ease and there should be adequate ventilation. The bottom of the crate should be padded with newspaper or other absorbent material. Add a favorite toy on move day to give a sense of security. Try to get your pet accustomed to the crate at home before the big day.

On move day, feed and water your pet at least 5 hrs before the flight departure time and water again at least 2 hours before departure. Remember to administer any medication or veterinarian-recommended tranquilizers before departure. When you arrive at the airport, exercise your pet and check that you have provided all the necessary information to airline staff regarding your name, correct new address and alternate contact name in case of emergency.

Some airlines allow passengers to bring pets into the cabin with them, provided they fall within a specific size range and stay in a carrier for the duration of the flight.

By road – In a motor vehicle

Unless you are planning a very short road trip, do not feed or water your pet for a couple of hours before leaving. You may decide to put your pet in a crate during the road trip, but be sure he is able to stand and turn around with ease and that there is adequate ventilation. The bottom of the crate should be padded with newspaper, towels or other absorbent and cushioning material. Adding a favorite toy will help give a sense of security. Exercise your pet regularly during the road trip, but always use a leash because your furry friend can easily get lost or hit by a car if he wanders off.

Do not let your pet hang his head out the window while the car is moving. While many dogs love to do this, it can cause sore eyes, ears or throat. And, never let the windows down so far that your pet can jump out.

Warning

Never leave a pet in a hot car during the summer or in a cold car in the winter. Temperatures inside a car with closed windows escalate dramatically when it’s parked in the sun. Even if it’s pleasant outside, it takes only a few moments to reach over 100 degrees inside the car – which can be fatal for small occupants. If you absolutely have to leave your pet briefly, and the day is hot, park in the shade, lock the car doors and crack the windows open several inches to provide cross-ventilation. Check on him regularly. If the day is very hot, it is best not to leave your pet in the car at all.

Pet’s travel bag

Don’t forget to pack a travel bag for your pet! Following is a list of items you may wish to include;

• Food and can opener

• Food and water dishes

• Any medication your pets needs

• Treats

• Favorite toys

• Leash

• Grooming brush

• Bags to clean up after your pet

• Newspapers

• Cleaner and paper towel

Whatever mode of transport you use for your pet, make sure you are in compliance with state and local regulations for animals in your destination city, along with current copies of.

• ID tags

• Health records

Pets ID tags

The state where you are moving may have different laws regarding animals and their entry across state lines. It is important that you understand the requirements so that you can comply with them, so contact the state veterinarian for specific information. It is not uncommon for pets to need an entry permit in order to enter a new state. As well, in many towns and cities the number of pets per household may be limited. You will be required to obtain a local license for your pet within a certain deadline, such as 30 days, so find out what it is. You don’t want to pay a fine for not keeping your pet’s license current!

Health

You may need to obtain a health certificate for your pet from a licensed veterinarian and this can be used in the event it is required for entry to your new home state. The Department of Agriculture may request to see the health cert at your destination airport or could even be patrolling the highways if you are driving. A health cert is generally valid for 10 days, so be sure to have the inspection scheduled just before you move. The veterinarian will conduct a complete physical examination of your pet and check that he is current with all inoculations.

Dogs

Whether traveling by air or by car, moving can be even more stressful for a dog than for a human, although some dogs adapt better than others. Hold off on packing your dog’s bedding and toys until the last moment so that he can be comforted by the presence of familiar things. If you’re traveling a long way, avoid feeding your dog for 12 hours before the journey in order to prevent travel sickness. If you know your dog suffers from travel sickness, ask your veterinary surgeon about medication.

If you plan on flying to your new home, do your best to book a direct flight. If your dog has to be transported by freight and the flight is not direct he may have to sit out in the hot or cold weather as the freight is boarded to the new flight. Check with the airlines for details. If your dog is small enough, he may be able to travel in the passenger cabin with you. He will need a special pet carrier, which you can purchase at your local pet store. Ask the airline what crate specifications they require.

If traveling by car, have your dog’s nails cut to avoid damage to the upholstery. Carry an adequate supply of plastic bags and use these to clean up after your pet at any rest stops you use. Never let your dog hang his head out the window of a car when it’ s moving. Even though most dogs love to do this, it can cause sore eyes, ears or throat.

Never leave your pet alone in a car, especially in hot weather. The temperature inside the car can quickly rise to an unbearable level, even on what feels like a pleasant afternoon.

Once you arrive at your destination, be sure to get your dog back in to his routine of eating and exercise. If you have moved to an apartment building and your pet dog was used to having a yard to play in, you’ll need to be extra considerate. Walk your dog more frequently, at least until he gets used to his new living situation. Be patient and make allowances for indoor “accidents.” Don’t punish your pooch, as this may make the problem worse. Clean the mess to remove the soil and smell. Once your dog has settled in, the accidents should stop. Use positive reinforcement to teach him where he needs to go. Always praise him when he relieves himself in the correct place.

One way to help your dog settle in more quickly is to create a comfortable sleeping area for him. If your new home has a yard, check the fencing to make sure that it is secure, of sufficient height and ‘hole-free’ before letting your dog run loose. If your dog is able to escape, exercise him on a lead until you are able to make the necessary improvements.

Cats

It’s commonly accepted that cats get very attached to places and typically hate to move. Cats get particularly comfortable with routine, and don’t like their environment to change. This can make moving especially difficult for humans and their cats.

In the days leading up to your move, try to keep your pet’s routine as normal as possible. It is best to crate your cat during the moving process, and it may be helpful to ask a friend or family member to keep an eye him.

If you are traveling by air, you may need to purchase an airline-approved carrier for you cat. You airline should be able to provide you with all the details. If you are traveling by car you may also want to use a crate or carrier so your cat cannot roam about the car, or escape through an open window or door.

Once you are in your new location, be careful to keep your cat indoors until he becomes comfortable in his new surroundings. Do not allow your cat outdoors, because he may try to return to you old home … and that’s obviously dangerous for him, especially if you’ve moved far away. Supervised outings are advised until your pet gets used to your new home. You can use a long leash on your cat and connect it to a stake in the ground, allowing your pet to wander the length of the leash for the first few days. Let your cat explore all the rooms of the house and be sure to check that outside doors and windows are closed before you begin.

Birds and Small Pets

Of all pets, birds are probably the most sensitive to changes in temperature and environment. Your pet bird can be moved in the cage in which it lives. When you are moving with your pet bird, be sure to use a cover for the cage. This can keep the bird calm and protect it from drafts. Place the cage in a shallow box to collect any gravel, feathers or droppings that may spill during transit. Remove any containers of food and water before moving the cage to avoid spills en route. Do feed and water your bird at its regular times, as birds, like all small animals, can become dehydrated very quickly in warm weather.

Some states require a health cert for birds entering the state. The USDA may inspect this cert either at the airport or during routine roadway inspections. Have your pet bird inspected by your veterinarian prior to traveling. Some health certificates are valid for a brief period of time. Ten 10 days is a common window for a health certificate.

Horses

There are several ways to transport horses. Your horse can be transported by air freight, by towing a trailer or by hiring a specialized horse transporting company. The horse transport company can use either air or road to transport horses.

By Air

Many airlines accept horses as air freight. In general, they will only transport horses on direct flights. You will be required to have a stall constructed to the airline’s specifications, and you will need to ensure your horse has the necessary health checks completed prior to moving to your new home state. Remember that requirements vary by state, and airlines will request a health certificate. The USDA may also be at the destination airport conducting inspections and may request to see the health certificate.

By Road

Depending on the distance you need to travel, towing your horse in a trailer behind your car or truck may be an option. If you do not own a trailer, you may consider renting one, but you’ll want to be sure you’re experienced enough to safely load and trailer your horse. You can also pack tack and feed in the trailer.

If your trip requires overnight stays you will need to book stables en route for your horse. These stables will require a health certificates appropriate to horses only, and if they do not you probably don’t want to board your horse there. Your veterinarian should be aware of the applicable laws of the different states and will be able to provide you with the necessary health certificates. (Contact information regarding states entry requirements is at the end of this guide.)

If you are unable to find a stable or lodgings for your horse in close proximity to your hotel, inquire whether the hotel will allow you to keep the trailer in the parking lot overnight. In inclement weather this is not advisable. Feed and water your horse per the normal routine and clean out the stall when you have an overnight stop.

Reptiles

Most states have strict government regulations regarding the entry of reptiles. See the states regulatory contact list at the end of this guide to find out what you need to do before moving your reptile from state to state.

As a general rule, the carrier that a reptile is transported in needs to be kept moist. Place the reptile in a cloth bag and fasten the top of the bag, making sure to leave the reptile enough room to move about, then place the bag in the shipping container. Use foam peanuts for cushioning and place damp paper or cloth in the shipper to keep the environment moist. Make sure there are air holes in the shipper for ventilation. If you are traveling overnight with your reptile you may need to place him in the tub of your hotel room at night for a nice long soak. Check if the hotel allows pets first.

Do not ship reptiles in excessively hot or cold weather, as their shipping container may be left outside for periods of time, leading to stress and possibly death.

Snakes must be handled with extra care, especially if they are venomous. Most airlines require double crating for snakes, which means putting the snake in one crate and then placing this crate in another, larger crate. Adequate ventilation is a must. The airline may provide you with stickers to put on all sides of the crate and you will need to write the type of snake on this label. You should also write on the sticker whether the snake is venomous or not.

**Warning

Remember to keep the surroundings of all reptiles moist, but not wet. Placing a damp cloth inside the container is one of the best ways to keep your reptile’s environment appropriately moist during transit.

Fish

Fish are notoriously difficult to move safely from one location to another, but it can be done effectively and efficiently with some planning. It is advisable to sell or give away as many fish as you can before you move to help ease the burden. However if this is not an option, this guide will help you understand what you need to do.

Depending on the size of your aquarium, and the number and type of fish you have, it may be easier to separate them into a several smaller tanks. If the aquarium is 5 gallons or less it may be just as easy to move the entire aquarium. Place some cellophane over the top of the aquarium and remove all heaters and aerators. Place the container in a cooler box or Styrofoam container to regulate the temperature and keep it constant for up to 48 hours. Be sure to open the cellophane every four to five hours to change and refresh the air. This option may be the best for tropical fish, which don’t do well in smaller containers with overcrowding or sudden changes in water and temperature.

Never leave the container in the car overnight, as the temperature changes may be too drastic for the fish. If you plan to be traveling to your destination for a couple of days with your fish it is advisable to purchase a portable aerator to keep the water well oxygenated. Always pack your aquarium last in the moving truck so that you can unload it quickly at your destination.

If you separate your fish into smaller containers or fish bags, you should try to use the aquarium water in order to keep the environment as constant as possible. In the event you do not have enough water for all the smaller containers, add fresh or saltwater appropriate to the type of fish. It is advisable to allow each container of water to settle for a few hours after filling. If you have only a small number of fish and are moving a short driving distance, you can move the fish to their new location by using plastic bags half-filled with water and half-filled with air. As a general guideline, each fish should have at least 1-2 gallons of water. To maintain the temperature, place the bags in an insulated container or Styrofoam container.

Most fish can go without food for a couple of days without any problems, but it is important to add healing agents to the water, as the fish may become bruised en route. This is not uncommon and you can purchase healing agents at your local pet supply store.

When you arrive at your destination set up the aquarium as quickly as possible. You may need to treat the water to neutralize any chemicals; your local pet store can advise you of any treatments the local water may need.

Turn the aerator on for a while, and then add slowly and gently add the fish to the tank one at a time. Wait until the water settles, and feed them as usual.

New Community

PLEASE, PLEASE be responsible when you move and check beforehand with your new community to find out if pets are allowed. Some apartment and condominium complexes may not allow pets, and you certainly don’t want to find that out on moving day.

Some of the most common reasons that people leave their pets with shelters are “we are moving “and “my landlord doesn’t allow pets.” Remember, pets do not know why their owners are leaving them behind, so do your homework beforehand to save all that heartbreak. Consider your options carefully, as pets should be considered a lifetime commitment. If you are absolutely unable to take your pet with you, you owe it to this creature to find him a good home.

State and local regulations

You need to make sure that your pet has some sort of easily read ID attached to its body. For dogs and cats this can be a collar, while a tag around the leg is appropriate for birds. The ID tag should have your pet’s name, destination address, your name and telephone number. It is also a good idea to have an alternate’s name and number on the tags in the event that somebody finds your lost pet and is unable to get in touch with you. You should also have rabies tags for your pet; depending on the state where you live this will most likely be a requirement. For air travel, your pet may be required to wear special travel tags, which the airline will provide.

When purchasing or outfitting vehicles for business or personal use, keep in mind:

1. Auto auctions are a enthusiastic way to save big on a vehicle, but they crapper be a venturous way to do so.

2. Industrial trailers are a big-ticket item; smaller manufacturers may be better off leasing than buying.

3. Knowing where to go to encounter machine parts crapper meliorate your moving industry business, or crapper reduce your fleet maintenance costs.

4. Searching discover the prizewinning deals on machine finance when buying or leasing your fleet crapper meliorate your bottom line.

Save big by buying cars or trucks at auto auctions though sometimes risky, auto auctions crapper be a enthusiastic way to pick up a bargain vehicle. There are auction companies that host auctions to sell utilised cars from a wide range of sources, including retired fleet, lease, and rental cars; cars repossessed by banks; and cars condemned in trade by dealers (‘consignment’ cars). Auto auctions sponsored by government agencies feature cars that hit exceeded a certain mileage limit, and police division machine auctions include their older cruisers and vans, as well as vehicles they hit seized from criminals.

Find industrialized trailers to haul your load Commercial industrialized trailers become in as many types and configurations as there are needs: horse trailers, car haulers, flatbed trailers, semi trailers and about a dozen more. Ask the companies that sell, rent and lease industrialized trailers for advice on the type of trailer perfectly suited to your towing needs and budget.

Pick up newborn wheels and tires for less You know where to get tires: You intend on down to your local ring store. Here are some enthusiastic tips. But did you know you crapper get enthusiastic online deals on wheels and tires? You crapper install them yourself if you are so inclined, but many online vendors hit deals with popular retailers who will install your wheels and tires after you receive them, at a reasonable price. You crapper also pick up coupons and price tires at the major ring retailers before going to hit the impact done. You crapper ofttimes even make your service appointment online. Buy machine parts Most of the same machine parts stores you pass every day also sell online.

But there are also online machine parts retailers who ofttimes claim that they circularize a far greater range of machine parts than the others and also may hit better prices. And you’ll also encounter online utilised parts stores for items of cut or fittings that are impracticable to encounter elsewhere.

MUSEUMS – The Barbier-Mueller Museum of Pre-Columbian Art -the only museum in Europe devoted exclusively to Pre-Columbian cultures. Housed in a gothic palace, its collection is one of the finest of its kind and gives visitors an insight into the rich world of the earliest cultures on the American continent. This tiny museum contains one hundred pieces, including wood and stone sculptures, ceramics, tapestries, jade, often found in international exhibitions and prestige publications. The exhibits represented the Olmec, Maya, Aztec, Chavin, Mochica and Inca civilisations. Palau de la Musica Catalana – one of the world’s most extraordinary music halls, it is a Barcelona landmark. From its polychrome ceramic ticket windows on the Carrer de Sant Pere Mes Alt side to its overhead busts of Palestrina, Bach, Beethoven, and Wagner, the Palau is the flagship of Barcelona’s Moderniste architecture. Museu Picasso – is Barcelona’s most visited museum. 3,500 exhibits make up the permanent collection. Picasso spent several years (1901-06) in Barcelona, and this collection, is particularly strong on his early work. Displays include childhood sketches, pictures from the beautiful Rose and Blue periods, and the famous 1950s Cubist variations on Velazquez’s Las Meninas (Ladies-in-Waiting). Gaudi Casa-Museu – Gaudi lived in this pink, Alice-in-Wonderland house from 1906 to 1926, which now houses a museum of Gaudi-designed furniture, decorations, drawings, and portraits and busts of the architect. Fundacio Miro – it was a gift from the famous artist Joan Miro to his native city. The museum opened in 1975, and now it is one of Barcelona’s most exciting showcases of contemporary art.

BEACHES – One of Barcelona’s greatest draws is undeniably its beautiful beaches. Beside world-famous Costa Brava and Costa Dorada which are within 1-hr drive time from Barcelona, there are also several nice beaches over 4 km long within the city boundaries, we will list just several of them here: Nova Icaria- Closest to the Olympic marina, always crowded, this wide swathe of rough golden sand is great for food goers. There are three perfect beach bars and two very popular restaurants on the promenade (Mango and Chiringuito de Moncho) and countless bars and restaurants are just a short stroll away. Bogatell- This beach is twice the length of adjoining Nova Icaria and fringed by a stretch of stone walkway perfect for jogging, roller blading and cycling. Three large informal restaurants on the promenade. Mar Bella (Metro Ciutadella Vila Olimpica, plus 20-minute walk)- Barcelona’s only naturist beach close to a peaceful park – good for a picnic or siesta under the trees. Barceloneta- wide and long, a traditional and popular stretch with locals, crowded, noisy and very jolly.

WHEN TO GO, WEATHER: The best times to visit Barcelona are late spring and early autumn, when the weather is still comfortably warm, around 21-25°C. Summers are usually hot and humid, with temperatures averaging +30 (+ 86 Fahrenheit). Especially avoid the “dead” month of August, when many shops, bars and restaurants close for the month as many local inhabitants head out of the city. Winters are cool with average daytime temperatures around +12 C (+59 Fahrenheit), occasionally rainy.

GETTING THERE AND AROUND: By a direct flight to Barcelona, or through Madrid or via another large European city from almost any major airports in the world. The highest fares are from May to September, the lowest in March-April, October-November and December to February (excluding Christmas and New Year when prices are hiked up). Note also that flying on weekends may increase your ticket cost. If traveling to Barcelona from within Europe you can also chose train, bus or car, though these take much longer than a plane and often work out no cheaper. Many Mediterranean cruises include Barcelona as a port of call.

ACCOMODATIONS: We can offer you a range of choices. You can choose vacation rentals in Barcelona starting from $ 125 USD for a double room in a 4-star apartment hotel. Or you can opt for hotels from $ 65 USD for a double room in a 3-star hotel. Accomodation prices do not change much throughout the year due to the steady all-season flow of visitors to this extremely popular tourist city and surrounding resorts.

DINING: Besides restaurants you can eat at bars where you would have a succession of tapas (small snacks- three or four chunks of fish, meat or vegetables, or salad, which traditionally used to be served up free with a drink) or raciones (larger ones). The bar option can be a lot more interesting, allowing you to do the rounds and sample local specialities. Generally, the average cost for a meal consisting of two dishes and dessert would come to about 25 Euros. Travellers on an extremely limited budget can do well for themselves by using the excellent markets, bakeries and delis and filling up on sandwiches and snacks. Decent restaurants and cafes are easily found all over the city, though you’ll probably do most of your eating where you do most of your sightseeing, in the old town, particularly around La Rambla and in the Barri Gotic. Look for the best and most authentic seafood restaurants in Barceloneta, a seaside neighbourhood. Gothic Quarter neighbourhood is home to some of the oldest and most traditional restaurants in the city. Gracia is a very popular area among young people during the weekend, it leads the way in terms of exotic restaurants (Lebanese, Egyptian, Thai etc.).

TRANSPORT: Barcelona has excellent transport system comprising the metro (subway), buses, trains and a network of funiculars and cable cars. You can find a link to transport maps at the end of our guide. On all the city’s public transport you can buy a single ticket every time you ride, but even over only a couple of days it’s cheaper to buy a targeta – a discount ticket strip. The T-10 targeta is valid for ten separate journeys on the metro, buses and trains. These tickets can be used by more than one person at a time. The metro is the quickest way of getting around Barcelona. For black-and-yellow taxis there is a minimum charge of $ 2 euro. You’ll obviously have a great deal more freedom if you rent a car . Major roads throughout the city are generally good, and traffic is generally well behaved, though Spain does have one of the highest incidences of traffic accidents in Europe. It also has some of the lowest fuel prices on the continent.

SHOPPING: Barcelona, one of the most stylish cities in Europe offers great shopping, from designer clothes and accessories to household items. You will find the city to be quite cheap for a lot of items, especially if you coincide with the annual sales ( rebaixes in Spanish) lasting from mid-January until the end of February, and throughout July and August. The best shopping areas in Barcelona are the old streets off the upper part of the Ramblas. Souvenirs include ceramics, which are widely sold in the streets around the cathedral; leather goods; city’s delicatessens, particularly cooked Catalan meats and sausages; a porron (the long-spouted glass drinking jar); CDs and tapes of Catalan rock and pop, sardana music, Spanish rock or flamenco. If you’re looking for original gift ideas, some of the best hunting can be found in the shops of any of the city’s museums, where you’ll find reasonably priced and unique examples of Catalan disseny (graphic), and other original items ranging from postcards to replica works of art. We wish you a nice and safe trip!

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Why now?

In more recent times, Costa Rica was the “it destination” in the region. Vacationers from around the world were flocking to the country for the beautiful beaches and relatively stable political and economic conditions. The problem was/is that there was relatively little buying of real estate going on in the country. The country appeared to get stuck in a destination vacation mentality. Panama, however, has developed in such a way, with help from history and the United States that longer term real estate development has become a lucrative option since the handover of the canal in 2000.

Generally, Panamas time for world recognition, as a development and destination country, was just a matter of time. Developers had a past perception of instability where there was none. The country just needed to be recognized as an opportunity and, now it has been.

Blame it on the canal

Location and circumstance are the real reasons for the eventual rise of Panama. It was just a matter of time until the full resources of a modern world could take advantage. Before construction of the Panama Canal the region was mostly a haven for mosquitoes and Yellow Fever. With the beginning of the canal this issue was resolved and thousands of Americans began flooding into the “Canal Zone” for construction, security and administrative jobs. With political agreements in place, these Americans, in one form or another, never really left.

What they ultimately left behind, after a few false starts by the new Panamanian government, was a sometimes called United States of Panama. In many respects, some of the remnants of the American culture surpass the true American original. Healthcare is inexpensive, economic growth runs just a bit higher than the US and crime is quite a bit less than the general perception.

Retirement fueling real estate growth

Although general business is helping to fuel Panamas growth, its true recognition on the world real estate stage is coming from United States and European retirees. The initial real estate boom has largely been fueled by retirement communities located in the mountains and, to a degree, in gated golf communities closer to the coasts.

In the past, these retirees may have had a certain perception of Panama. Now those perceptions have changed as they visit for holiday and decide to stay. Local foods, American style shopping, a relaxed pace, easy transportation and lower prices all make for a near perfect retirement location if an international option is desired. Perhaps two of the largest benefits are that there is quality medical care that costs substantially less than in the United States and that the English language is just as prevalent as Spanish.

Economic Stability

As Donald Trump and others go about their building activities the economy is running right along side to fill the buildings that are being constructed. Panama has slowly gotten its economic base under control after some rocky missteps. In todays economy, the country is known as a transit point, not only for goods but also for services. In many respects, Panama has become a cross roads for the world. The job of getting the country up to full speed is far from complete but the work is progressing nicely.

Shipping, trans-shipping

There are two main areas that the country is working diligently on so that the overall economy can maintain its solid annual growth. These two areas are shipping and trans-shipping and communications. Again, owing to the canal shipping is one of the countrys main revenue generators. Year over year growth has been occurring and is expected to be maintained into the foreseeable future. To maintain this pace, and keep pace with escalating ship sizes, a program to increase the size of the canals locks and channels has begun. Currently, there is a very large market waiting in this area as is the current market for getting through the canal.

A natural off-shoot of the canal is the trans-shipping and warehousing of goods. This segment of the shipping market continues to grow and recognizes Panamas importance as a gateway to South Americas large economies of Chile and Brazil.

In this recognition Panama is a member of the World Trade Organization, a benefit recipient of the Caribbean Basin Initiative and is in current talks for free trade status with a number of countries. With each agreement real estate will be a leading beneficiary and continue to drive development.

Communications

Another contributor to Panamas growth is its location and communications. There are several land portals that use Panama as a central switching location for South American traffic. Quite a few telecommunications companies have recognized Panamas opportunities and applied for licenses. So as not to be overrun by these companies Panamas leaders are carefully addressing each step. The government does not appear to be dragging its feet, so-to-speak, but they are being careful. The opportunities are enormous not only for switching opportunities but for services such as high speed internet and VOIP.

Currently, internet opportunities are under served as the government sorts out, broadband type services, computer to phone and other longer range possibilities. They want to be future looking as they make their decisions now. One interesting statistic remains, however, only 12 percent of homes have telephones.

Looking to the near future

As world real estate executives, travel agents and business in general looks at Panama, and Panama City in particular, the question remains, what will happen next? Real estate executives are diving in head first and see only profits in all sectors, Travel agents are seeing retirees looking for cool mountains and hot beaches and business is chomping at the bit for a bit more technology infrastructure. There are certain tipping points along the growth spectrum and it appears that Panama is near one, in one form or another. Today, however, life is good in almost every respect in Panama.